Sunday, June 28, 2009
Hello Everyone.
This is to inform my visitors (especially my lot in MC103 - Communication Values and Ethics) that our presentation text is the third publication from here. It still aint finished though, the last page of the summary was handed to Gerhard, who I saw earlier today performing at SM Bacolod foodcourt. No point. Just a chuckle. The 2nd publication from here going down is for my MC 101 assignment (Photography and Multimedia Communication). Thank you.
On Aperture
Aperture - General Definition
Aperture is a hole in which light travels through. It determines the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. It also determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is important for the appearance at the image plane. If the admitted rays also pass through a lens, highly collimated rays (narrow aperture) will result in sharpness at the image plane, while uncollimated rays (wide aperture) will result in sharpness for rays with the right focal length only. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp around what the lens is focusing on and blurred if not. The aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light that reaches the image plane (the narrower the aperture, the darker the image).
Aperture - In Photography
The aperture stop of a photographic lens can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor. Together with variation of shutter speed, the aperture size will regulate the film's degree of exposure to light. Typically, a fast shutter speed requires a larger aperture to ensure sufficient light exposure, and a slow shutter speed requires a smaller aperture to avoid excessive exposure.
Diagram of decreasing aperture sizes (increasing f-numbers) for "full stop" increments (factor of two aperture area per stop)
A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye—it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus.
The lens aperture is usually specified as an f-number, the ratio of focal length to effective aperture diameter. A lens typically has a set of marked "f-stops" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the film or image sensor. The photography term "one f-stop" refers to a factor of √2 (approx. 1.41) change in f-number, which in turn corresponds to a factor of 2 change in light intensity.
Aperture priority is a semi-automatic shooting mode used in cameras. It allows the photographer to choose an aperture setting and allow the camera to decide the shutter speed and sometimes ISO sensitivity for the correct exposure. This is sometimes referred to as Aperture Priority Auto Exposure, A mode, Av mode, or semi-auto mode.
Maximum and minimum apertures
The specifications for a given lens typically include the minimum and maximum apertures. These refer to the maximum and minimum f-numbers the lens can be set at to achieve, respectively.
A typical lens will have an f-number range from f/16 (small aperture) to f/2 (large aperture) (these values vary). The maximum aperture (minimum f-number) tends to be of most interest (and is always included when describing a lens). This value is also known as the lens speed, because it is proportional to the square of accepted light, and thus inversely proportional to the square of required exposure time (i.e. using a lens with f/2, one can take pictures at one quarter of the exposure time necessary using a f/4 lens). Lenses for 35mm cameras can have f-numbers below f/1.0. For instance both the Leica Noctilux-M 50mm ASPH and a Canon 50mm L-mount for rangefinders have a maximum aperture of f/0.95. Professional lenses for some movie cameras have f-numbers as low as f/0.75 (very large relative aperture). These are known as "fast" lenses because they allow in more light and therefore reduce the exposure time. Stanley Kubrick's film Barry Lyndon has scenes with the largest relative aperture in film history: f/0.7.
Lenses of low f-number, often with fixed focal length, are popular for example with photojournalists, who often work in dim light and typically have limited opportunity to introduce supplementary lighting.
Zoom lenses typically have a maximum aperture (minimum f-number) of f/2.8 to f/6.3 through their range. A very fast zoom lens will be constant f/2.8 or f/2, which means the relative aperture will stay the same throughout the zoom range. A more typical consumer zoom will have a variable relative aperture, since it is harder and more expensive to keep the effective aperture proportional to focal length at long focal lengths; f/3.5 to f/5.6 is an example of a common variable aperture range in a consumer zoom lens.
Aperture control
Most SLR cameras provide automatic aperture control, which allows viewing and metering at the lens’s maximum aperture, stops the lens down to the working aperture during exposure, and returns the lens to maximum aperture after exposure.
The first SLR cameras with internal (“through-the-lens” or “TTL”) meters (e.g., the Pentax Spotmatic) required that the lens be stopped down to the working aperture when taking a meter reading. With a small aperture, this darkened the viewfinder, making viewing and composition difficult. Subsequent models soon incorporated mechanical coupling between the lens and the camera body, indicating the working aperture to the camera while allowing the lens to be at its maximum aperture for composition and focusing; this feature became known as automatic aperture control or automatic diaphragm control.
For some lenses, including a few long telephotos, lenses mounted on bellows, and perspective-control and tilt/shift lenses, the mechanical linkage was impractical, and automatic aperture control was not possible. Many such lenses incorporated a feature known as a “preset” aperture which allows the lens to be set to working aperture and then quickly switched between working aperture and full aperture without looking at the aperture control. Typical operation might be to establish rough composition, set the working aperture for metering, return to full aperture for a final check of focus and composition, and focusing, and finally, return to working aperture just before exposure. Although slightly easier than stopped-down metering, operation is less convenient than automatic operation. Preset aperture controls have taken several forms; the most common has been the use of essentially two lens aperture rings, with one ring setting the aperture and the other serving as a limit stop when switching to working aperture. Examples of lenses with this type of preset aperture control are the Nikon PC Nikkor 28 mm f/3.5 and the SMC Pentax Shift 6×7 75 mm f/4.5. The Nikon PC Micro-Nikkor 85 mm f/2.8D lens incorporates a mechanical pushbutton that sets working aperture when pressed and restores full aperture when pressed a second time.
Canon EF lenses, introduced in 1987, have electromagnetic diaphragms, eliminating the need for a mechanical linkage between the camera and the lens, and allowing automatic aperture control with the Canon TS-E tilt/shift lenses. Nikon PC-E perspective-control lenses, introduced in 2008, also have electromagnetic diaphragms. Automatic aperture control is provided with the newer Nikon digital SLR cameras; with some earlier cameras, the lenses offer preset aperture control by means of a pushbutton that controls the electromagnetic diaphragm.
Aperture is a hole in which light travels through. It determines the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. It also determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is important for the appearance at the image plane. If the admitted rays also pass through a lens, highly collimated rays (narrow aperture) will result in sharpness at the image plane, while uncollimated rays (wide aperture) will result in sharpness for rays with the right focal length only. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp around what the lens is focusing on and blurred if not. The aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light that reaches the image plane (the narrower the aperture, the darker the image).
Aperture - In Photography
The aperture stop of a photographic lens can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor. Together with variation of shutter speed, the aperture size will regulate the film's degree of exposure to light. Typically, a fast shutter speed requires a larger aperture to ensure sufficient light exposure, and a slow shutter speed requires a smaller aperture to avoid excessive exposure.
Diagram of decreasing aperture sizes (increasing f-numbers) for "full stop" increments (factor of two aperture area per stop)
A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye—it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus.
The lens aperture is usually specified as an f-number, the ratio of focal length to effective aperture diameter. A lens typically has a set of marked "f-stops" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the film or image sensor. The photography term "one f-stop" refers to a factor of √2 (approx. 1.41) change in f-number, which in turn corresponds to a factor of 2 change in light intensity.
Aperture priority is a semi-automatic shooting mode used in cameras. It allows the photographer to choose an aperture setting and allow the camera to decide the shutter speed and sometimes ISO sensitivity for the correct exposure. This is sometimes referred to as Aperture Priority Auto Exposure, A mode, Av mode, or semi-auto mode.
Maximum and minimum apertures
The specifications for a given lens typically include the minimum and maximum apertures. These refer to the maximum and minimum f-numbers the lens can be set at to achieve, respectively.
A typical lens will have an f-number range from f/16 (small aperture) to f/2 (large aperture) (these values vary). The maximum aperture (minimum f-number) tends to be of most interest (and is always included when describing a lens). This value is also known as the lens speed, because it is proportional to the square of accepted light, and thus inversely proportional to the square of required exposure time (i.e. using a lens with f/2, one can take pictures at one quarter of the exposure time necessary using a f/4 lens). Lenses for 35mm cameras can have f-numbers below f/1.0. For instance both the Leica Noctilux-M 50mm ASPH and a Canon 50mm L-mount for rangefinders have a maximum aperture of f/0.95. Professional lenses for some movie cameras have f-numbers as low as f/0.75 (very large relative aperture). These are known as "fast" lenses because they allow in more light and therefore reduce the exposure time. Stanley Kubrick's film Barry Lyndon has scenes with the largest relative aperture in film history: f/0.7.
Lenses of low f-number, often with fixed focal length, are popular for example with photojournalists, who often work in dim light and typically have limited opportunity to introduce supplementary lighting.
Zoom lenses typically have a maximum aperture (minimum f-number) of f/2.8 to f/6.3 through their range. A very fast zoom lens will be constant f/2.8 or f/2, which means the relative aperture will stay the same throughout the zoom range. A more typical consumer zoom will have a variable relative aperture, since it is harder and more expensive to keep the effective aperture proportional to focal length at long focal lengths; f/3.5 to f/5.6 is an example of a common variable aperture range in a consumer zoom lens.
Aperture control
Most SLR cameras provide automatic aperture control, which allows viewing and metering at the lens’s maximum aperture, stops the lens down to the working aperture during exposure, and returns the lens to maximum aperture after exposure.
The first SLR cameras with internal (“through-the-lens” or “TTL”) meters (e.g., the Pentax Spotmatic) required that the lens be stopped down to the working aperture when taking a meter reading. With a small aperture, this darkened the viewfinder, making viewing and composition difficult. Subsequent models soon incorporated mechanical coupling between the lens and the camera body, indicating the working aperture to the camera while allowing the lens to be at its maximum aperture for composition and focusing; this feature became known as automatic aperture control or automatic diaphragm control.
For some lenses, including a few long telephotos, lenses mounted on bellows, and perspective-control and tilt/shift lenses, the mechanical linkage was impractical, and automatic aperture control was not possible. Many such lenses incorporated a feature known as a “preset” aperture which allows the lens to be set to working aperture and then quickly switched between working aperture and full aperture without looking at the aperture control. Typical operation might be to establish rough composition, set the working aperture for metering, return to full aperture for a final check of focus and composition, and focusing, and finally, return to working aperture just before exposure. Although slightly easier than stopped-down metering, operation is less convenient than automatic operation. Preset aperture controls have taken several forms; the most common has been the use of essentially two lens aperture rings, with one ring setting the aperture and the other serving as a limit stop when switching to working aperture. Examples of lenses with this type of preset aperture control are the Nikon PC Nikkor 28 mm f/3.5 and the SMC Pentax Shift 6×7 75 mm f/4.5. The Nikon PC Micro-Nikkor 85 mm f/2.8D lens incorporates a mechanical pushbutton that sets working aperture when pressed and restores full aperture when pressed a second time.
Canon EF lenses, introduced in 1987, have electromagnetic diaphragms, eliminating the need for a mechanical linkage between the camera and the lens, and allowing automatic aperture control with the Canon TS-E tilt/shift lenses. Nikon PC-E perspective-control lenses, introduced in 2008, also have electromagnetic diaphragms. Automatic aperture control is provided with the newer Nikon digital SLR cameras; with some earlier cameras, the lenses offer preset aperture control by means of a pushbutton that controls the electromagnetic diaphragm.
Thursday, June 25, 2009
Chapter 1: Ethics and Moral Development
Overview: The Study of Ethics
Ethics in Definition
-the philosophical analysis of human mrality and conduct; system of conduct or behavior, moral principles
-"ethic" moral principle or set of prinnciples (work ethic, etc.)
...
Ethical Dilemmas
-moral struggles and reflection in an effort to do the right thing
-responding to two competing actions in engagement with the conscience
...
Examples of everyday Ethical Dilemmas
-free internet music downloads when music files (.mp3) are supposed to be bought in digital format
-reporting crimes witnessed and risk safety in anonimity doing it
-a physician-assisted suicide and all the moralities around it
-hidden cameras utilized by press people and all its implications
-commercialization of sex and violence by hollywood entertainment
...
By these examples, ethics can be seen as public justification of our own choices based on the grounds of morality as reflected in the home, playground or workplace.
...
"Cultivation of Morality"
-a historically quoted important responsibility of learning institutions by way of teaching ethics.
...
Term Origins
Morals - Latin roots mos, moris mean "way of life" or "conduct"
Ethics - Greek root ethos means "custom" "usage" or "character"
- a ratinal process applying established principles when two moral obligations collide.
...
"It is usually the absence of a 'correct answer' in the presence of two 'right' moral obligations that ethical dilemmas occur."
...
Example of two moral obligations in a student's viewpoint:
-Loyalty to the classmate or honesty to the teacher over keeping silent about a the classmate's confidence that he cheated.
...
The moral standards of the society, over the course of history, had also set the ethical standards of profession today, making way for the usual interchange between "morals" and "ethics." Ethics, also labeled to be "moral philosophy" is testimony to this fact.
...
Ethics, as a set of principles or a code of moral conduct draws the boundaries even within the positive or negative ideas. For example, such negativities as incompetence and laziness are not necessarily immoral, but their cousins lying, cheating and stealing are downright immoral.
...
HISTORY
-The study of Ethics began 2500 years back to Plato's statememts about his mentor Socrates roaming Greece in pursuit of Greek ideas on justice and goodness.
-The so-called "Socratic Method of Inquiry" of questions and answers pertaining to perceptions on conduct, has brought the people into heated discussions on morality even among themselves.
...
Moral Diversity - brought conflicts manifested on ethical debate due to the difference between standards.
...
Ethics in mass communications descend directly from the Socratic Method of Inquiry due to the QandA format of criticism in journalism, advertising and public relations.
...
"The People's Right to Know" is the journalists' most powerful justification in delving into people's privacies.
Problem: They don't actually answer the questins of what people ought to know and why they have the right to know.
...
Branches of Ethics
1. Metaethics - characteristics, nature of ethics
- examines meanings of ethical terms good, right, justice, fairness, etc.
- provides fundamentals for thical decisions but ont guideposts to actual decision making.
...
2. Normative Ethics - development of general theories, rules and principles of modern conduct.
- looks into rise and decline of certain moral values in history as ethical markers of civilizations
- provides foundation of ethical decisions in the real world setting.
...
3. Applied Ethics - the application of Metaethics and Noramtive Ethics, and is so therefore the actual problem solving and decision making branch of ethics.
- usage of insights from metaethics and principles of normative ethics in addressing issues.
...
Example: A reporter's commitment to the privacy of his sources in the face of a lawyer's commitment to the acquittal of his client by way of information on the sources of the reporter's news report.
Colliding concepts on this example: Betayal of trust (reporter), Justice (a fair trial for the defendant)
...
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION
...
Concepts in ethics within a communication process
1. Moral Agents (the communicators)
-actions done (specifically communication) and their channels, messages, motives and consequences
example: an education reporter (moral agent - together with his audience and employer) who does news reports and participates in advocacies (channels) on abortion rights and homosexual civil rights (motives) had been reassigned from education news reporting to swing shift editor (consequence)
...
2. Context
-either political, social or cultural which may or may not determine the outcome of the judgement, but to either set the message to which content it applies or creazte internal conflicts to invoke conscience.
...
3. Motives
-proper examination of the motives to avoid the usage of good motives in justification of unethical actions.
example: a reporter (moral agent) uncovers administrative corruption (motive) by way of deception/entrapment (unethical acts) received tolerance/appaluse (consequence) from the masses.
...
4. the Act itself
-the behavioral component, whether ethical or not, whether good motives or not.
...
5. Consequences
-either positive or negative effects for moral agents (reassignment, promotion, or sacking) and the audience (transformation, renewed convictions, strengthened beliefs).
example: A tribute written to a hardworking hispanic in America appearing on the local paper's Sunday edition which resulted to the poor hispanic's arrest by the immigration people upon finding out his undocumented residence status.
...
THE VALUE OF ETHICS EDUCATION: 2 Schools of Thought
1. Cynical View - Skeptics doubt the value of teaching ethics as individuals develop a sense of ethics before school. Education may not be necessary to develop morality.
example: A college student who is expelled from school after cheating on his ethics exam, in which he had been enrolled as punishment for an earlier case of plagiarism outside the ethics course.
...
2. Optimistic Formal Ethics Training - Based on moral knowledge with fixed values of Concepts into concrete and solid ethical training.
...
............(Unreadable) Media Ethics
Five Educational Objectives
1. Stimulate moral imagination - personal choices and perceived/imagined consequences as dictated by morality.
2. Recognize ethical issues - according to the needs of the audience, these issues which arise in times of collision of to ideazs can be addressed with proper training on moral reasoning.
3. Develop analytical skills - critical thinking, which is the heart of every decision making process.
4. Elicit moral obligation and personal responsibility - responsibility cannot be delegated. being resonsible for own actions and the consequences.
5. Tolerate disagreement - avoid automatic labeling of the opposing idea as immoral in disagreement.
...
DEVELOPING ETHICAL FITNESS
"Ethical Fitness" as it was called by Rushworth Kidder, a journalist and the founder of the Institute of Global Ethics, doesn't establish itself from mastery of an ethics course. the course provides the learners hypothetical experiences of ethical dilemmas to start living the real world with.
...
"Mental Engagement" and "Commitment through the feelings," also according to Kidder is what jumpstarts the ethical fitness one may achieve through confrontation of tough moral issues encountered everyday.
...
The First Principles of Moral Virtue
Ethics in Definition
-the philosophical analysis of human mrality and conduct; system of conduct or behavior, moral principles
-"ethic" moral principle or set of prinnciples (work ethic, etc.)
...
Ethical Dilemmas
-moral struggles and reflection in an effort to do the right thing
-responding to two competing actions in engagement with the conscience
...
Examples of everyday Ethical Dilemmas
-free internet music downloads when music files (.mp3) are supposed to be bought in digital format
-reporting crimes witnessed and risk safety in anonimity doing it
-a physician-assisted suicide and all the moralities around it
-hidden cameras utilized by press people and all its implications
-commercialization of sex and violence by hollywood entertainment
...
By these examples, ethics can be seen as public justification of our own choices based on the grounds of morality as reflected in the home, playground or workplace.
...
"Cultivation of Morality"
-a historically quoted important responsibility of learning institutions by way of teaching ethics.
...
Term Origins
Morals - Latin roots mos, moris mean "way of life" or "conduct"
Ethics - Greek root ethos means "custom" "usage" or "character"
- a ratinal process applying established principles when two moral obligations collide.
...
"It is usually the absence of a 'correct answer' in the presence of two 'right' moral obligations that ethical dilemmas occur."
...
Example of two moral obligations in a student's viewpoint:
-Loyalty to the classmate or honesty to the teacher over keeping silent about a the classmate's confidence that he cheated.
...
The moral standards of the society, over the course of history, had also set the ethical standards of profession today, making way for the usual interchange between "morals" and "ethics." Ethics, also labeled to be "moral philosophy" is testimony to this fact.
...
Ethics, as a set of principles or a code of moral conduct draws the boundaries even within the positive or negative ideas. For example, such negativities as incompetence and laziness are not necessarily immoral, but their cousins lying, cheating and stealing are downright immoral.
...
HISTORY
-The study of Ethics began 2500 years back to Plato's statememts about his mentor Socrates roaming Greece in pursuit of Greek ideas on justice and goodness.
-The so-called "Socratic Method of Inquiry" of questions and answers pertaining to perceptions on conduct, has brought the people into heated discussions on morality even among themselves.
...
Moral Diversity - brought conflicts manifested on ethical debate due to the difference between standards.
...
Ethics in mass communications descend directly from the Socratic Method of Inquiry due to the QandA format of criticism in journalism, advertising and public relations.
...
"The People's Right to Know" is the journalists' most powerful justification in delving into people's privacies.
Problem: They don't actually answer the questins of what people ought to know and why they have the right to know.
...
Branches of Ethics
1. Metaethics - characteristics, nature of ethics
- examines meanings of ethical terms good, right, justice, fairness, etc.
- provides fundamentals for thical decisions but ont guideposts to actual decision making.
...
2. Normative Ethics - development of general theories, rules and principles of modern conduct.
- looks into rise and decline of certain moral values in history as ethical markers of civilizations
- provides foundation of ethical decisions in the real world setting.
...
3. Applied Ethics - the application of Metaethics and Noramtive Ethics, and is so therefore the actual problem solving and decision making branch of ethics.
- usage of insights from metaethics and principles of normative ethics in addressing issues.
...
Example: A reporter's commitment to the privacy of his sources in the face of a lawyer's commitment to the acquittal of his client by way of information on the sources of the reporter's news report.
Colliding concepts on this example: Betayal of trust (reporter), Justice (a fair trial for the defendant)
...
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION
...
Concepts in ethics within a communication process
1. Moral Agents (the communicators)
-actions done (specifically communication) and their channels, messages, motives and consequences
example: an education reporter (moral agent - together with his audience and employer) who does news reports and participates in advocacies (channels) on abortion rights and homosexual civil rights (motives) had been reassigned from education news reporting to swing shift editor (consequence)
...
2. Context
-either political, social or cultural which may or may not determine the outcome of the judgement, but to either set the message to which content it applies or creazte internal conflicts to invoke conscience.
...
3. Motives
-proper examination of the motives to avoid the usage of good motives in justification of unethical actions.
example: a reporter (moral agent) uncovers administrative corruption (motive) by way of deception/entrapment (unethical acts) received tolerance/appaluse (consequence) from the masses.
...
4. the Act itself
-the behavioral component, whether ethical or not, whether good motives or not.
...
5. Consequences
-either positive or negative effects for moral agents (reassignment, promotion, or sacking) and the audience (transformation, renewed convictions, strengthened beliefs).
example: A tribute written to a hardworking hispanic in America appearing on the local paper's Sunday edition which resulted to the poor hispanic's arrest by the immigration people upon finding out his undocumented residence status.
...
THE VALUE OF ETHICS EDUCATION: 2 Schools of Thought
1. Cynical View - Skeptics doubt the value of teaching ethics as individuals develop a sense of ethics before school. Education may not be necessary to develop morality.
example: A college student who is expelled from school after cheating on his ethics exam, in which he had been enrolled as punishment for an earlier case of plagiarism outside the ethics course.
...
2. Optimistic Formal Ethics Training - Based on moral knowledge with fixed values of Concepts into concrete and solid ethical training.
...
............(Unreadable) Media Ethics
Five Educational Objectives
1. Stimulate moral imagination - personal choices and perceived/imagined consequences as dictated by morality.
2. Recognize ethical issues - according to the needs of the audience, these issues which arise in times of collision of to ideazs can be addressed with proper training on moral reasoning.
3. Develop analytical skills - critical thinking, which is the heart of every decision making process.
4. Elicit moral obligation and personal responsibility - responsibility cannot be delegated. being resonsible for own actions and the consequences.
5. Tolerate disagreement - avoid automatic labeling of the opposing idea as immoral in disagreement.
...
DEVELOPING ETHICAL FITNESS
"Ethical Fitness" as it was called by Rushworth Kidder, a journalist and the founder of the Institute of Global Ethics, doesn't establish itself from mastery of an ethics course. the course provides the learners hypothetical experiences of ethical dilemmas to start living the real world with.
...
"Mental Engagement" and "Commitment through the feelings," also according to Kidder is what jumpstarts the ethical fitness one may achieve through confrontation of tough moral issues encountered everyday.
...
The First Principles of Moral Virtue
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